Introduction to Research Methods

Introduction (Doing Sociology : Research Methods)

Sociology is a scientific discipline. This means that its knowledge about the social world is not based on common sense, speculation, or personal opinion. Instead, it is based on evidence that is gathered through systematic and rigorous research methods. Research methods are the tools and techniques that sociologists use to design and carry out their investigations. 'Doing sociology' is fundamentally about applying these methods to answer questions about society.

The choice of a research method depends on the nature of the research question being asked. For example, a sociologist wanting to know the percentage of people in India who support inter-caste marriage would likely use a large-scale survey. In contrast, a sociologist wanting to understand the lived experience of being in an inter-caste marriage would be more likely to use in-depth interviews or participant observation. There is no single 'best' method; each has its own strengths and weaknesses.

The research process typically involves several key steps:

1. Defining the Research Problem: Clearly stating the question or issue to be investigated.
2. Reviewing the Literature: Examining existing research on the topic to understand what is already known.
3. Formulating a Hypothesis: A testable statement about the relationship between variables.
4. Choosing a Research Design: Selecting the appropriate method(s) for collecting data.
5. Collecting the Data: Implementing the chosen method(s) in the field.
6. Analysing the Data: Interpreting the collected information to identify patterns and relationships.
7. Drawing Conclusions: Stating the findings of the research and their implications.

Understanding research methods is crucial not only for those who want to 'do' sociology but also for anyone who wants to be a critical consumer of information about society. It equips us with the skills to evaluate the claims we encounter in the media, in political debates, and in our everyday lives.

Some Methodological Issues

Conducting sociological research is a complex process that involves confronting several methodological challenges. These issues relate to the nature of sociology as a science, the position of the researcher, and the types of data that are collected.

Objectivity vs. Subjectivity

A central debate in sociology is about the extent to which it can be an objective science.

• Objectivity refers to the attempt to conduct research in a value-free and unbiased manner, without allowing the researcher's personal beliefs and opinions to influence the findings. The goal is to describe the social world as it is, not as the researcher thinks it should be. Early sociologists like Durkheim, who advocated for studying 'social facts as things', were strong proponents of objectivity.
• However, achieving complete objectivity in the social sciences is very difficult. Researchers are part of the very society they are studying. Their own social background—their class, caste, gender, and culture—inevitably shapes their perspective. This is the problem of subjectivity.

Rather than claiming perfect objectivity, most sociologists today acknowledge the importance of being self-reflexive. This means that researchers must be constantly aware of their own biases and assumptions and make them explicit in their work. They must strive to be as systematic and fair-minded as possible, but also recognise that their own social location will influence their research.

Multiple Methods and Triangulation

Because the social world is complex, no single research method can capture it completely. Each method provides a different kind of insight and has its own limitations. For this reason, sociologists often use multiple methods or a 'mixed-methods' approach in their research. The use of more than one method to study the same phenomenon is known as triangulation. For example, a researcher studying poverty might combine a large-scale survey to get quantitative data on the extent of poverty with in-depth interviews and participant observation to get qualitative data on the lived experience of being poor. By combining different methods, researchers can get a richer, more comprehensive, and more valid understanding of the issue.

The Problem of Reactivity

Unlike the objects of study in the natural sciences (like rocks or chemicals), human beings are conscious subjects who are aware that they are being studied. This can lead to the problem of reactivity, also known as the Hawthorne effect. This is where the very presence of the researcher can cause the people being studied to alter their behaviour. They might try to present themselves in a more favourable light or behave in the way they think the researcher wants them to. Sociologists must be aware of this problem and use techniques (like building rapport or using unobtrusive measures) to try and minimize its effects.

Research Ethics

Sociological research involves dealing with human beings, which raises important ethical considerations. Researchers have a moral responsibility to protect the rights and welfare of their research subjects. Key ethical principles include:

• Informed Consent: Researchers must obtain the voluntary consent of participants after fully informing them about the nature and purpose of the research.
- Confidentiality and Anonymity: Researchers must protect the identity and privacy of their participants. Data should be kept confidential, and findings are often published in a way that makes it impossible to identify individuals. - No Harm to Participants: The research should not cause any physical, psychological, or social harm to the participants.

These methodological issues highlight the unique challenges of studying human society. 'Doing sociology' requires not just technical skill in applying methods but also a high degree of theoretical sophistication, self-awareness, and ethical responsibility.